Вселенная Стивена Хокинга. Три книги о пространстве и времени

Черные дыры, квазары, пульсары

Черные дыры, представляют собой область пространства-времени, где гравитационное поле так сильно, что свет или другие сигналы затягиваются туда и не могут выскользнуть во внешний мир. Это интенсивное гравитационное поле около черной дыры приводит к возникновению пар частица-античастица, одна из которых падает в черную дыру, а другая улетает в бесконечность. Улетающие частицы словно бы излучаются черной дырой.
Квазары - это похожие на звезды объекты, которые должны быть в несколько раз ярче целых галактик.
Пульсары - это быстро мигающие остатки взрыва сверхновой, предположительно сверхплотные нейтронные звезды.

Energy is a bit like money: if you have a positive balance, you can distribute it in various ways, but according to the classical laws that were believed at the beginning of the century, you weren’t allowed to be overdrawn. So these classical laws would have ruled out any possibility of time travel. However, as has been described in earlier chapters, the classical laws were superseded by quantum laws based on the uncertainty principle. The quantum laws are more liberal and allow you to be overdrawn on one or two accounts provided the total balance is positive. In other words, quantum theory allows the energy density to be negative in some places, provided that this is made up for by positive energy densities in other places, so that the total energy re-mains positive.

The idea of wormholes between different regions of space-time was not an invention of science fiction writers but came from a very respectable source. In 1935, Einstein and Nathan Rosen wrote a paper in which they showed that general relativity allowed what they called “bridges,” but which are now known as wormholes. The Einstein-Rosen bridges didn’t last long enough for a spaceship to get through: the ship would run into a singularity as the wormhole pinched off. However, it has been suggested that it might be possible for an advanced civilization to keep a wormhole open.

The explanation that is usually given as to why we don’t see broken cups gathering themselves together off the
floor and jumping back onto the table is that it is forbidden by the second law of thermodynamics. This says that
in any closed system disorder, or entropy, always increases with time. In other words, it is a form of Murphy’s law: things always tend to go wrong! An intact cup on the table is a state of high order, but a broken cup on the floor is a disordered state. One can go readily from the cup on the table in the past to the broken cup on the floor in the future, but not the other way round. The increase of disorder or entropy with time is one example of what is called an arrow of time, something that distinguishes the past from the future, giving a direction to time. There are at least three different arrows of time. First, there is the thermodynamic arrow of time, the direction of time in which disorder or entropy increases. Then, there is the psychological arrow of time. This is the direction in which we feel time passes, the direction in which we remember the past but not the future. Finally, there is the cosmological arrow of time. This is the direction of time in which the universe is expanding rather than contracting.

If Euclidean space-time stretches back to infinite imaginary time, or else starts at a singularity in imaginary time, we have the same problem as in the classical theory of specifying the initial state of the universe: God may know how the universe began, but we cannot give any particular reason for thinking it began one way rather than another. On the other hand, the quantum theory of gravity has opened up a new possibility, in which there would be no boundary to space-time and so there would be no need to specify the behavior at the boundary. There would be no singularities at which the laws of science broke down, and no edge of space-time at which one would have to appeal to God or some new law to set the boundary conditions for space-time.